Energy and the environment

Although the environmental impact of energy supply and use goes beyond climate change, it is the UK's contribution to combating global warming which is at the top of the Government's agenda. However, examples of the wider impact of energy on the environment, that is for the energy supply industry and transport respectively, are set out in Tables 1 and 2 below (see Environment in the European Union - Report for the Review of the Fifth Environmental Action Programme).

In December 1997, at Kyoto, the UK was one of 174 parties to the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change which agreed to a legally binding target of reducing the developed countries' emissions of a basket of six greenhouse gases, namely, carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, hydrofluorocarbons, perfluorocarbons and sulphur hexafluoride. As part of the EU's overall objective of cutting emissions by 8%, the UK has been assigned a target to reduce emissions to 12.5% below 1990 levels by the period 2008-2012. Furthermore, the Government has set a national target of reducing carbon dioxide releases by 20% by 2010 from 1990 levels.

Energy supply

On the energy supply side, which includes electricity generation, oil production and refining, gas production and transmission, and production of coal and other solid fuels, the primary emissions are those of carbon dioxide (from fuel combustion), methane (from offshore oil and gas production, coal mining and gas distribution) and nitrous oxide (from refineries), together with smaller amounts of sulphur hexafluoride from the use of electrical switching gear. Carbon dioxide emissions from the energy supply industry have fallen by about 14% since 1990, largely as a result of increased efficiency in the generation process and a move away from the use of coal and oil to gas and nuclear energy. More energy efficient technologies such as combined cycle gas turbine and combined heat and power have also been taken up.

Policy for the next decade is to continue these developments with perhaps a reduction in nuclear energy and the development of other low and zero carbon energy sources such as renewables, with the overall aim of delivering 10% of UK electricity demand from renewables by 2010. (Authors note: it is not necessarily the case that renewable energy sources have a low carbon content, for example, wood-burn schemes).

The increase in plant efficiency is essential if targets are to be met and to this end the implementation of Integrated Pollution Prevention and Control (IPPC) will produce further efficiencies in electricity supply. As mentioned, the use of combined heat and power will also be encouraged, the current target being 5,000 megawatts of installed capacity by 2000.

Energy use

On the energy use side, hydrofluorocarbons derive mainly from the manufacture and use of refrigerants, perfluorocarbons from the aluminium smelting industry although increasingly from firefighting and the use of solvents, and sulphur hexafluoride from the magnesium and electronics industries.

Of the other greenhouse gases deriving from energy use, carbon dioxide comes mainly from fuel combustion, methane from fuel combustion and waste disposal, and nitrous oxide, interestingly, as a side-effect from the use of catalytic converters in vehicles to reduce the localised impact of carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxide and sulphur dioxide.

Energy consumption by sector (based on 1996 data) is as follows: industry 24%; transport 32%; domestic 31%; services 12.5%; and agriculture 0.5%. Not unexpectedly, gas, petroleum and electricity make up some 80% of the supply, with some 0.5% deriving from renewable resources.

Instruments

The Government is expected to set about reaching its targets by a mixture of measures, including regulation, voluntary agreements, subsidies and other economic instruments covering energy supply and use. In his November 1998 report to the Chancellor of the Exchequer Economic Instruments and the Business Use of Energy Lord Marshall explores these issues further, especially the use of economic instruments. The report concludes that regulation has its place, notably the implementation of IPPC which will apply to industrial installations in the UK and which provides that energy should be used efficiently. However, the use of voluntary agreements to improve energy efficiency, the use of subsidies such as the Non-Fossil Fuel Obligation, and other fiscal instruments to encourage the use of renewables and combined heat and power will be necessary. Tradeable emissions permits and tax incentives (especially for small and medium sized enterprises) are also on the horizon.

The report concludes that any of these measures must be careful to protect the competitiveness of British industry and, at the same time, maximise environmental benefit, a principle which goes to the heart of sustainable development.

Table 1
Energy supply industry


THEME

IMPACT AND COMMENT

Global

Climate change26% of total CO2 emissions.
16% of total CH4 emissions from leakages from gas distribution.
8.7% of total N2O emissions from combustion of fossil fuels.


European/transboundary

Acidification52% of total SO2 emissions, of which 80% from coal.
18% of total NoX emissions.
Other air pollutionHeavy metals (mercury, cadmium, lead, zinc, copper and arsenic) emissions from combustion processes.


Regional

Waste management8% of total waste arisings from coal slag and power station ash.
Water resourcesUse of water for coal washing.
Discharge of cooling waters may raise water temperatures.


Urban environment

Local air pollution (particulates, heavy metals, SO2, NoX).
Household fuel consumption contributes to winter smog episodes.


Risk

Nuclear power gives rise to operational and storage safety problems.
Coastal zonesSiting of nuclear installations in coastal zones.
Offshore operations and transport of oil are major causes of oil spillage.


Soil

Contamination from mining and former gas works.
Nature and biodiversityLandtake for mining, hydro-schemes, barrages, distribution networks.
Acid deposition.
Discharge of effluents and cooling waters.

Table 2
Transport industry


THEME

IMPACT AND COMMENT


Global

Road, Rail, air and shipping
Climate change 14% of total CO2 emissions.4% of total CO2 emissions.
Ozone depletion - Stratospheric ozone depletion.


European/transboundary

Acidification 51% of total NOX emissions.
Electricity generation for rail.
NOX from plane take-off, taxiing and landing.
Other air pollutionLead emissions.
Diesel train emissions of particulates.
34% of total VOC emissions (7% from refuelling).
Associated road traffic to airports and railway stations.
18% of total particulate emissions.
5% of total CO emissions.


Regional

Waste management
Disposal of used cars, tyres and batteries.
Discharge of oil and hazardous materials from shipping.
Water resourcesRun off oil, anti-freeze, etc. from roads, runways, car parks to sewage and seepage to groundwater.
Urban environment 80% of total noise emissions.
Noise close to railways, goods yards.
Urban congestion increases emissions, loss of working and leisure time, functional efficiency of urban areas
Noise from early and late night flights. .


Risk

Human health risks from accidents and carcinogens (benzene, etc.)
Transport of hazardous substances.
Aviation and shipping are major causes of oil seepage and spill.


Coastal zones

Protection of infrastructure provides justification for impeding natural coastal erosion and sediment deposition processes.
Coastal shipping is a major cause of oil seepage and spill.


Soil

Erosion from new road building.Contamination of soils in old railway yards.
Slope destabilisation and soil contamination from run off.
Nature and biodiversityExtraction of aggregates and infrastructure development leads to land take, severance and fragmentation of habitats.
Landscape impacts from new roads and airports, dereliction of obsolete rail facilities and secondary development associated wth infrastructure.

Pamela Castle